2017년 3월 31일 금요일

John Smith (explorer)

John Smith (explorer)

John Smith

John Smith (British: in John Smith, 1580 for –1631 six a year 21 days a month) is a British officer, a colonization contractor, a sailor and an author.

Table of contents

Life

I built Jamestown that became the first lasting colony by the white in North America in the current United States of America Virginia Williamsburg city. Because there was interchange, Smith is known between the argument with the ポウハタン group Indian in daughter Pocahontas and the short term of the chief. Smith acted as the leader of the Virginia colony that based on Jamestown from 1607 through 1609 and explored many rivers and Chesapeake Bay of Virginia.

The report of Smith about "the new world" that I submitted to London was important like the achievements. A large number of British men and women went over to the new world according to the way which Smith cut open and became the pioneer (according to an Indian an invader). Smith explores the northeastern part of the United States, and even the thing that I named called New England is known to the area. If "it is here, anyone works along the place where oneself thinks, and Smith at that time can become an owner of the land....Even if there is only the working hand,...I said, I can become a rich person immediately if I worked diligently and encouraged people. As for this powerful message, these in whites millions of during the lasting fourth century; local, attract it, and lay slaughter and the territory plunder of the Indian; of "the Indian war" triggered it.

Early adventure

John Smith was baptized in town Willoughby of British Lincoln Shah state Alford nearby. The parents of Smith were tenants of Sir Willoughby there. Smith received education at Edward fourth grammar school of bamboo pipe-stems. Smith left the house at 16 years old after death of father and became a sailor.

When French king Henry IV fought against Spain, Smith became a hired soldier and fought against Ottoman Empire later. When Prince Mihai prowess of the straw Kia dukedom (current Romania) raised the military for 1600 through 1601, the House of Hapsburg of the Hungarian kingdom had it and fought and got promotion to a captain. Radu shell van of straw Kia gained it and, after death of Mihai, fought against イェレミャ モヴィラ of the Moldavia dukedom.

I fought a deal with a commander of Ottoman Empire three times and defeated a partner three times to death before Smith became a captive. Smith was made a knight from Prince bar bird jig Mond of the Transylvania dukedom in this and was given a horse. However, I got injured in 1602 and was arrested and was sold as a slave. When Smith sent him as a present to the places of the lovers that a Turk fell in love with Smith later, I insisted (probably Smith worked as a tutor for a short term and expected the person who paid long-term ransom money). Smith was taken to Crimea and I got away from the territory of Ottoman Empire from there and fled into Grand Duchy of Muscovy followed by was in the Poland Republic of Lithuania. Furthermore, I took a trip to Europe and the North Africa and came back to the U.K. in 1604.

Virginia colony

 
Writing "history general view cover of John Smith of Virginia, New England and summer Islands"
I refer to "Jamestown" (Virginia)

In 1606, Smith came to be concerned with a Virginia colonization plan by the London Virginia company. This plan was based on Imperial grant of British King James I. Small ship, Susan of three ships were constant, and the expedition sailed by god speed and Discovery on December 20, 1606.

Smith was a problem child going on a voyage clearly, and the Christopher New port captain who summarized three ships thought to execute Smith if I arrived at Virginia. However, I nominated Smith for the one of the leader of the new colony when I opened the sealed letter missive from the Virginia company when I came to current cape Henry on April 26, 1607, and Newport was the adjutant. I chose the place where Edward Maria Winfield that was Chairperson of committee became "Jamestown" on May 14 when I was looking for a suitable fixation place.

British perform a ceremony of the ポウハタン group who is a local Indian tribe and the peace with "a sacred pipe" in "Jamestown", and the ポウハタン group will hold out a helping hand to whites taking advantage of this.

The ポウハタン group concluded peace with British in a ceremony of this peace. The oath of "the sacred pipe" is an absolute for an Indian. Therefore, all the anecdotes "that a British settler was threatened by a ポウハタン group" that Smith spread after this are lies [1].

Weather was in confusion, and the water was short and received the attack of the Algonquian Indian, and most of the colonies were destroyed. Smith became nearly ten years after I came back to the British own country and has begun to spread it around suddenly saying "I was caught by a ポウハタン group when I went ahead through the チカホミニー riverside for food in December, 1607 and was taken to the village [2] of them called "ウェローコモコ" in chief ワフンソナコック".

Smith announced it by memoirs saying "ポウハタン chief gave it an order for execution of Smith then, and it was about to be spoiled by 100-bashing, but young Pocahontas of the daughter of the chief who saw this stretched out its body on the body of Smith and protected him, and a life was saved" [3]. At the very instant that "I say so that I am executed I did every thing that it was thought that she ran a risk and saved me and persuaded father of not only it but also her, and I was sent back to Jamestown safely." [4]

"The beautiful story" in defiance of the social system of this Indian is put on a textbook of the United States and is talked to be true now. After this Pocahontas "is set up as a symbol of "the good Indian" who saved a white, and leave a ruination for Indians now.

When this year, Smith were saved again in 1608 by Pocahontas, I spread it around later. But "Smith and several other settlers were invited to ウェロコモコ for a friendship by ポウハタン chief [5] that Pocahontas came over to the hut where Smith stayed in, and I warned it when I planned it so that ポウハタン killed Smith, and Smith stood in people of the patrol by this news, and there was not as for the attack after all."

The heroic episode, "I was saved again by Pocahontas" of this Smith is thought to be a made-up story of Smith [6].

Plunder line from an Indian

Smith left Jamestown later and searched for an area of Chesapeake Bay and, looking for the food which the colonization that I starved for required, I moved about approximately 3,000 miles (4,800km) and plundered local Indians of food [7].

In September, 1608, Smith was chosen as the chairperson of the local committee and proposed a policy to respect rules, and the epigram which was famous to encourage agriculture made without "eating the person who did not work".

I spread while taking the territory of the Indian, and the colony grew up under the instruction of Smith. The technique as the colonization leader of Smith depended on a threat and the plunder for just the indigenous people Indian. At this time troubled by food shortage, Smith holds the オプチャンカノー chief (pupil at the lowest rank of ワフンソナコック) of the ポウハタン group hostage and threatens it and performs purveyance.

According to the testimony of Smith, "I catch this "オプチャンカノー of the murder",...I take the curly hair having a long his head and address a pistol to his chest, and there is it saying I let you promise it to load 20 tons of corn onto our ship before I took you out from the house in his battalion, and we are divided. Whites thronged suddenly and abducted the chief who was an arbitrator if I made Indians and threatened it saying "I kill a chief if I did not give food". Not to mention Indians, I challenged you to a fight for this cruel invader.

In 1609, full-scale war happened between a white settler of ポウハタン group Indian and Virginia. Smith suffered a serious wound by an accidental fire of the gunpowder which I put in a gunpowder case. Smith goes to the U.K. for treatment in October, 1609, and there was not the thing coming back to Virginia afterwards.

Later years

 
Map (1612) of Virginia that John Smith published

In 1614, Smith went over to the United States again and navigated Maine and the shore of the Gulf of Massachusetts then and named the area New England [8]. Furthermore, in 1615, I tried a trip to the second New England, but I was caught at Azores archipelago by French pirates. Smith ran away several weeks later and came back to France. Therefore Smith published these two times of traveler's diary as A Description of New England.

After later Smith ceasing to leave the U.K., and having worked hard for writing of the writing for the rest of life, I died in 1631.

Beautiful story of Pocahontas

Writing of Smith was the only document, and, about the anecdote "that did it, and saved Smith from the execution to risk its life Pocahontas" (てい) in the book of Smith, the people who expressed doubt about the truth among whites in the after 1860s increased. Though two writing about Virginia was published as for one reason of the doubt early, it is that there was not the description about this event. It was a thing in the letters which it entreated to treat Pocahontas with dignity to Queen Ann in 1616 a little less than ten years after the event that Smith wrote down that I was saved by Pocahontas [9]. I crossed Pocahontas in the U.K. from this year through the next year and had an audience with the king. There is a possibility that I exaggerated the event because Smith develops an impression of Pocahontas at the time of the blank before publishing a story of Smith or built it up. However, I do it because the book which Smith gave early is the topography and a folkloric description by the recent writing of LeMay mainly, and there was not room to put personal experience into when there was not a reason to write down an event until a point in time in 1616 [10].

Historian Henry Brook's Adams of well-known Harvard of the late 19th century was going to see a way of hero in a claim of Smith. The story about Pocahontas whom Smith expressed was gradually colored up, and Adams told that I built up "the impudent lie that was not possible in the present age". スミスが誇張する傾向があったということでは、歴史家達が概ね一致するところであるが、スミスの証言はその人生の基本的真実を語ることでは首尾一貫していると思われる。 アダムズのスミスに対する攻撃は、アメリカ南部の歴史の象徴を貶める試みであり、南北戦争に向かっていた時代の政治的背景を考えて動機付けられたものであった。 アダムズの影響を受けてスミスを攻撃したジョン・パルフリーは、アメリカの基礎を築いたものとして南部の入植に対抗するニューイングランドの位置付けを評価していた。 スミスの証言の真贋をめぐっては何世紀にも亘って議論が続けられることになった[11]。

歴史家のカミラ・タウンゼンドは、同時代の人々の評価としてスミスが「評判のほら吹き」であり、大胆不敵さを装い、彼の仲間の移住者たちの中でもっともインディアンをこき使いたがる傾向を指摘している[12]。

また、この逸話自体はオリジナルなものでもなく、実際にこの美談の「元ネタ」になったとみられるエピソードがスミス以前にある。1539年にアメリカ南東部を探検したスペイン人のエルナンド・デ・ソトは、フロリダで出会ったオランダ人捕虜のフアン・オルティスから「インディアンのヒッリヒグア酋長に生きたまま火焙りにされかけたが、酋長の娘の頼みで命を救われた」というまったく同じ筋書きの真偽不明の話を聞かされているのである。

この美談の中でスミスは「救出された」と述べているが、「実際には単に部族採用式としての、死と再生を象徴する儀式に加わっただけだ」とする専門家の意見[13][14]が指摘されている。しかし、デイビッド・A・プライスが著した「ジェームズタウンの愛憎」では、これが単なる推測に過ぎずポウハタンの儀式に付いては（白人側には）ほとんど知られていないこと、北アメリカの他のインディアンにはそのような儀式に関する証拠がないことを挙げている[15]。

これに対し、歴史家アンジェラ・L・ダニエル・"シルバースター"は、ポウハタン族の構成部族のひとつマッタポニ族のリンウッド・"リトルベアー"・カスタロー博士との共著の中で、ポカホンタスが当時11歳だったことを挙げ、「ポカホンタスは子供であり、子供がそのような式典・儀式に出席することは許されていない」と述べ、この記述を否定しており、さらにカスタロー博士の兄でマッタポニ族の酋長カール・"ローンイーグル"・カスタローは、この著書に寄せて、「インディアンに対する差別と、我々の見解が嘲笑されるのではないかという恐れのため、我々はこれまで、ポカホンタスの実話を語ることを考えてこなかった」と述べている[16]。

また、スミスは「ポウハタン酋長が彼の処刑を命じた」と書いているが、そもそもインディアンの酋長は「指導者」ではなく、またインディアン社会に「処刑を命じる」ような権力者はいない[17]。また、これが「儀式」だったとすれば、これを取り仕切るのは呪い師であって、酋長ではない。ポウハタン酋長が部族民にスミスの「処刑」を「命令する」というのもインディアンの社会ルールからして不自然である。

ジョン･スミスはインディアンの酋長を首長のような「部族長」ととらえ、終始一貫してそのように扱い、植民地拡大を有利にし、部族を支配するために酋長を人質にし、命令し、脅迫している。しかしインディアンの社会は合議制民主主義であり、酋長は「調停者」であって「支配者」ではない。植民地領土についてスミスがポウハタン酋長と取り決めをしたとしても、これは部族民の総意をとりつけたものではない。この地域のインディアンは、部族の決めごとはすべて「ロングハウス」という会議場の中で、「大いなる神秘」のもと、「会議の火」を囲んで「聖なるパイプ」を回し飲みし、酋長や部族民の合議のもとに決定するのである。そもそもスミス自身がインディアンの社会を理解していない。

スミスら白人がポウハタンの土地に上陸したとき、ポウハタン酋長たちポウハタン族はこの侵略者たちを歓待し、「兄弟」として食べ物を分け与え、彼らを援助した。インディアンのすべてを共有する文化のおかげで生き延びたスミスは、彼らを「裸の野蛮人」と呼び、謀略を駆使してその領土を奪い、虐殺したのである。

ポカホンタスの出身部族ポウハタン族のロイ・クレイジーホース酋長は、部族のHPで「ポカホンタスの神話」と題し、スミスやロルフが「ポウハタンを食い物にした」と述べ、またこのなかでロンドン時代に偶然スミスと会ったポカホンタスが激怒し、彼を「嘘つき」と叫んだ記録を指摘し、「スミスはロンドンで関心を得るためにこのような作り話を捏造したのだろう」としている。

真実が何であったにしろ、このポカホンタスとの出会いは、スミスを初めとするジェームズタウンの植民者とインディアンとの友好関係をほんの一時期だけ築いた。しかし、武力を背景とした白人の植民地拡大は、インディアンにとっては侵略に他ならなかった。白人と敵対するインディアン部族は次第に増え、植民地戦争はすぐに再開されていく。

スミスの著作

インディアンを終始子供扱いし、「裸の野蛮人」と呼び続けたスミスは、この「野蛮人」についていくつか報告書を描いている。その内容は、合議制であるインディアンの社会を君主制の身分社会とし、酋長を「族長」とするデタラメなものである。

 
「ニューイングランドの解説」表紙
  • A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Happened in Virginia (1608)
  • A Map of Virginia (1612)
  • The Proceedings of the English Colony in Virginia (1612)
  • A Description of New England (1616)
  • New England's Trials (1620, 1622)
  • The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624)
  • An Accidence, or the Pathway to Experience Necessary for all Young Seamen (1626)
  • A Sea Grammar (1627) - 英語では初めての水夫の辞書
  • The True Travels, Adventures and Observations of Captain John Smith (1630)
  • Advertisements for the Unexperienced Planters of New England, or Anywhere (1631)

ジョン・スミスの記念碑

スミス船長の記念碑はニューハンプシャー州海岸のスター島という小さな島にあるが現在破損したままである。1864年に建立されたが、この年はスミスがこの地を訪れてから250周年であった、最初の記念碑は背の高い柱が三角形の基礎の上に立っており、頂上に行くには花崗岩の支柱と頑丈な鉄の手摺りで囲まれた一連の階段があった。最初のオベリスクの頂上には3つの顔が彫られており、スミスがトランシルバニアで軍人として戦った期間に殺した3人のトルコ人の切断された頭を表していた[18] 。

1914年、ニューハンプシャー州植民地戦争協会が、300周年を祝うために記念碑を部分的に修復して再度建て直した[19]。この記念碑は荒々しい海岸の冬の気候に曝されて痛みが激しく、花崗岩に彫られた碑文はほとんど擦り切れてしまった。

映画の中のジョン・スミス

脚注

  1. ^ 『The True Story of Pocahontas: The Other Side of History』（Dr. Linwood "Little Bear" Custalow, Angela L. Daniel "Silver Star" ，Fulcrum Publishing,2007）
  2. ^ この集落は、ジェームズタウンの真北15マイル (24 km)のヨーク川北岸にあり、パムンキー川とマタポニ川がウエストポイントで合流する地点からは下流に25マイル (40 km)の所にあった。
  3. ^ Smith, Generall Historie
  4. ^ Smith. Letter to Queen Anne.
  5. ^ Symonds, Proceedings, pp. 251-2; Smith, Generall Historie, pp. 198-9, 259.
  6. ^ 『The True Story of Pocahontas: The Other Side of History』（Dr. Linwood "Little Bear" Custalow, Angela L. Daniel "Silver Star" ，Fulcrum Publishing,2007）
  7. ^ この略奪行は2006年に作られた「ジョン・スミス船長チェサピーク国立歴史の道」に記念されている。
  8. ^ New England. (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 20, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service: [1]
  9. ^ Smith. Letter to Queen Anne.
  10. ^ Lemay. Did Pocahontas, p. 25. Lemay's other arguments in favour of Smith are summarized in Birchfield, 'Did Pocahontas'.
  11. ^ Lepore, Jill, "The New Yorker", Ap. 2, 2007, p. 40-45
  12. ^ カミラ・タウンゼンド著「ポカホンタスとポウハタンのジレンマ（Pocahontas and Powhatan Dilemma」（2004年）
  13. ^ Gleach, Powhatan's World, pp. 118-21.; Kupperman, Indians and English, pp. 114, 174.
  14. ^ カミラ・タウンゼンド著「ポカホンタスとポウハタンのジレンマ」（2004年）
  15. ^ Price,David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown, p. 243-4.
  16. ^ 「ポカホンタスの真実の物語：歴史の他側面（The True Story of Pocahontas: The Other Side of History）」（2007年）、リンウッド・"リトルベアー"・カスタロー博士との共著
  17. ^ Felix S. Cohen、Readings in Jurisprudence and Legal Philosophy、1952
  18. ^ J. Dennis Robinson The Ugliest Monument in New England
  19. ^ Robinson. John Smith Memorial Photo History

参考文献

  • Horn, James, ed. Captain John Smith, Writings, with Other Narratives of Roanoke, Jamestown, and the English Settlement of America (Library of America, 2007) ISBN 978-1-59853-001-8.
  • Philip L. Barbour, The Jamestown Voyages under the First Charter, 1606-1609, 2 vols., Publications of the Hakluyt Society, ser.2, 136-37 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969)
  • A. Bryant Nichols Jr., Captain Christopher Newport: Admiral of Virginia, Sea Venture, 2007
  • Philip L. Barbour, The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964)
  • Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
  • Dorothy Hoobler and Thomas Hoobler, Captain John Smith: Jamestown and the Birth of the American Dream (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006)
  • Horn, James. A Land as God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America (New York: Basic Books, 2005)
  • Kupperman, Karen Ordahl ed., John Smith: A Select Edition of His Writings (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988)
  • Price, David A., Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Heart of a New Nation (New York: Knopf, 2003)
  • Lemay, J.A. Leo. Did Pocahontas Save Captain John Smith? Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1992, p. 25.
  • John Smith, The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1631) in Three Volumes, edited by Philip L. Barbour, 3 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for The Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, 1986)
  • Smith, John. The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles. 1624. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. pp. 198-9, 259.
  • Smith, John. Letter to Queen Anne. 1616. Repr. as 'John Smith's Letter to Queen Anne regarding Pocahontas'. Caleb Johnson's Mayflower Web Pages. 1997. Accessed 23 April, 2006.
  • Symonds, William. The Proceedings of the English Colonie in Virginia. 1612. Repr. in The Complete Works of Captain John Smith. Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Vol. 1, pp. 251-2
  • Warner, Charles Dudley, Captain John Smith, 1881. Repr. in Captain John Smith Project Gutenberg Text, accessed 4 July, 2006

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