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2017년 3월 23일 목요일

Bril

Bril

Vagueness evasion In this item, I explain an American railroad, bus vehicle maker. Please see "Bril" (submarine) about the submarine of U.S. Navy.
Brill mark of the journal box lid
Brill-21E form cart of the Yokohama streetcar preservation building

Bril (J.G. Brill and Company) is a railroad carriage, the bus vehicle maker which there was ever in the United States of America.

It produced a vehicle, carts for streetcar, inter-Urban and put the head office, the factory in Pennsylvania Philadelphia mainly.

Table of contents

History

In 1868, it is founded as a passenger car maker for the horse tramway by Jon George Bril (John George Brill). I purchased several railroad carriage makers in the 1900s and extended a business scale and grew up in the company the America's biggest for a streetcar vehicle and a train maker for inter-Urban. I found a factory in Paris in 1912 and step forward to the U.S. foreign territory.

The capital spending is necessary, but be superior to a technique of the die forging suitable for a mass production, and a change of the wheelbase including the "27MCB" series which continued being done keeps the characteristic of the die forging product to be easy alive, and a celebration meets a demand of the customer because of a bestseller in history record-breaking for ニ axis single cart and superior ride comfort as "21E" where it is, and a dead copy was born all over the world and high speed train (general railroad) business for a long time and is known by having supplied the affiliation cart of various dimensions, specifications to the world in large quantities. In addition, on the other hand, it develops the ニ step spring constant-type bolster spring mechanism that enabled the coexistence of the element to disagree with called increase of the load to call itself mechanism equivalent to current ボルスタアンカー called the trunnion and グラディエート spring-resistant and the improvement of the ride comfort and the wobble prevention mechanism of the shaking pillow carrying an opponent out of the ring link which calls itself a ball hanger, and it is known to performance and improvement of the ride comfort even to have been eager.

I was purchased in 1926 by American car fund Lee (en:American Car and Foundry Company), but continued producing a railroad carriage, buses in the name of J.G. Bril sequentially. However, because the demand for railroad carriage decreased, the number of the production decreased, and the factory of each place was closed sequentially after the 1930s by progress of the motorization, too. Production released streamlined streetcar vehicle "Bril liner" (Brilliner) similar to the PCC car delivered to each place in the United States in those days in the same age middle originally, but the order finished the production of a railroad carriage, the streetcar vehicle in comparison with a PCC car in 1941 without showing it and discontinued my business in 1944.

New company "American car fund Lee = Bril" (American Car and Foundry Company-Brill, ACF-Brill) was established after a business closing immediately and continued producing buses, but a factory of Philadelphia was closed in 1954, and the company became extinct.

The vehicle which produced by a business closing from the establishment of a business of approximately 45,000 (including the bus).

Chronological table

Main product

Railroad carriage
  • The streetcar vehicle which is available for a change of the Bril convertible car (Brill Convertible Car) - sealing up form, opening form
  • Bril cicada convertible car (Brill Semi-Convertible Car)
  • Bril Highway conjunction car (Brill High-speed Articulated Cars) - conjunction car
  • Vehicle of the bullet shape using the Bril Brett (Brill Bullet) - curved surface glass
  • Streetcar vehicle of the Bril liner (Brilliner) - streamline
Bus
  • C-36 - public route bus use
  • Bus use between IC-41 - cities
  • Twin coach (Twin Coach)

Export to Japan

From the early 1900s through about 1930, I perform much export to Japan. The example which I exported to Japan as a finished product of the railroad carriages is only Kyushu railroad Bril passenger car (a popular name "a certain train"), but, as for the cart, "76E" "77E" for the streetcar bogie delivers "27MCB" for the electric railroad vehicle to a private railroad of each place of the whole country and the government streetcar company "21E" for the streetcar motorcycle. The train at the time of the opening of business of the Kyoto electric railroad which was a train for the first Japanese business used cart (21B) made of Bril mainly.

There is a used thing in the cart made of Bril delivered for Japan now (2016) in 2016.

Railroad carriage

Delivery only for carts

I write down the main form using the cart made of Bril below. Other than a license product by Japan Steel Works tied up in Japan, it was produced the copy article of the product made in Bril cart by the maker companies in Japan including Sumitomo Metal Industries and Nippon Sharyo, Ltd. without permission a lot, and, in 76E, 77E for the streetcar, the production of the copy article continued in a thing until the Pacific War.

21E

ニ axis single cart。 (photograph) [1]

22E

Make the ニ axis bogey cart that is the first among Bril Corporation; and the first maximum traction cart. It is kind of the bolus Thales cart which does not have a heart plate. (photograph) [2]

  • Kyoto Tsu Electric orbit 1 form train
  • Osaka streetcar 501 form train

27G

An axis spring type 2 axis bogey cart belonging to the balance spring which locates a stack leaf spring parallel to a track, and supports a pillow beam and the heart plate which did it. I possessed a cart limit made of cast steel, and only 27G-1 for Hanshin Electric Railway was imported into Japan.

27G-1
  • Hanshin Electric Railway 1 form train

27GE

An axis spring type 2 axis bogey cart of the normal structure having a heart plate. In an improved model of 27G, I changed the cart frame to forging.

27GE-1 (photograph) [3]

27E

The twin bogey cart which was designed for high-speed trains as a higher model of 27GE. I abolished a balance spring of 27G/27GE origin and hung a beam arranged parallel to a track from a cart frame, and it was structure to pick up a bolster spring on this top, and to support a lower shaking pillow.

27E-1
27E-1 1/2
  • South seas iron HEPCO 2 form train
27E-2

27MCB

 
Bril 27MCB-2 cart (for former Ina electric railroad デ 203) which Ueda Kotsu ED25 1 attaches.
There is remodeling with the electric locomotive conversion in later years to some extent, but a trunnion and the ball hanger mechanism that are the proof of the Bril Corporation pure article are left.

A balance beam type cart for the high-speed train designed according to a standard of Master Car-Builders Association. The model number MCB shows this, and the number of the suffix expresses the big things and small things of the wheel and axle dimensions in the ARA standard and comes to support large load so that a number is big. In addition, X referred to the end shows that even the model of the same number usually attaches large wheel and axles for load than the thing of the standard. In addition, each model of import or 1, 2, 2X, 4X produced under license was used in Japan.

27MCB-2
27MCB-4X
  • Existence only for train use high-speed with a license product of new Keihan railroad P-6 form train - Japan Steel Works. Because I remodeled it into the brakes of both alettes type later, it was the specific appearance that jumped out outside brakes てこが cart frame.

39E

A maximum traction cart version of 27GE.

  • Osaka streetcar 601 form train
39E-2

76E

The twin bogey cart for the low floor car. With 77E and sisters model, a model number was sorted with difference in 主電動機装架位置. 76E was supplied for the route where short wheelbase was pursued in with the structure that 装架 made the main motor outside of two axles. (photograph) [4]

76E-1

77E

The twin bogey cart for the low floor car equal to the sisters model of 76E. It became the structure that 装架 made the main motor between two wheels and was adopted in a large-scale streetcar and some high speed trains.

77E-1

79E

The twin single cart for the low floor car. It became the structure that could set up air braking easily.

  • Yokohama streetcar 500 form train
  • Osaka streetcar 701 form train

Footnote

  1. ^ 21E "train machine appliance illustration" (National Diet Library digital collection)
  2. ^ 22E "train machine appliance illustration" (National Diet Library digital collection)
  3. ^ 27GE-1 "train machine appliance illustration" (National Diet Library digital collection)
  4. ^ 76E "train machine appliance illustration" (National Diet Library digital collection)

References

  • Friend company "railroad fan" July, 1962 issue (consecutive number of volumes 13)
  • Ayumi Hakodate-shi Traffic Bureau 50 years magazine editing Committee 1957 of streetcar 50 years
  • Streetcar 100 years Hakodate City Tram Department 2013 of Hakodate
It is acquired by "https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Bril &oldid=62914553"

This article is taken from the Japanese Wikipedia Bril

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2016년 6월 3일 금요일

Academic art

Academic art

Alexander Cabanel "Birth of Venus" (1863)

With the academic art (academic art, English: Academic art),

  1. I point at picture, painters influenced by the model of the French art academy. I was practiced under the neoclassicism and the Romantic Movement in the art academy, and the trial to say to unify two was done. It is William Adolf ブグロー, mark Orel de Foix スゾール = iron, Thomas クチュール, the work of Hans マカルト to reflect it well. The academic picture can call "conventionalism" "formalism" "are ポンピエ" "eclecticism" and may be related with "historicism" (Historicism) "syncretism" (Syncretism) in this context.
  2. It is the style of a picture, the sculpture made under the influence of a European academy or a university. It becomes the academic picture this time in this context when an academic picture and the picture which fought against each other are received till then by a scholar.

In addition, I write it down about the academic art (Academic art) except the picture.

Table of contents

Summary

History of the art academy

The first art academy is "dirt Demi a デッレ アルティ Dell ディゼーニョ" (Accademia delle Arti del Disegno) which Giorgio Vasari established in Florence in 1563 (existing Florence Beaux-Arts Accademia di Belle Arti Firenze). That students learned "arti del disegno" (if a coined word of ヴァザーリ translates it literally "the art of the rough sketch"), and anatomy and the geometric lecture were included there, too.

Patron saint of the painter, "dirt Demi a D sun Luke" (Accademia di San Luca) named after St. Luke were established than it in Rome about ten years late. This performed an educational function and thought about an aesthetics theory carefully from アカデミア of Florence.

In 1582, Ann knee came out and カラッチ was own expense and opened "Accademia dei Desiderosi" in Bologna (I establish "dirt Demi a デリ インカミナーティ" successively in about 1585). At some points, I resembled the studio of the traditional artist, but if a signboard called "アカデミア" which was attractive words was necessary, I felt カラッチ in that time and named so it.

I made a model of dirt Demi a D sun Luke, and "a royal picture, sculpture academy" (Académie de peinture et de sculpture) was established in France in 1648. It is "an art academy" in the back (Académie des Beaux-Arts). The French academy seemed to adapt "arti del disegno" with "beaux arts" (ボザール), and English "fine arts" (fine arts) is a literal translation of "beaux arts". The royal picture, sculpture academy had a purpose to distinguish the artist who "was the gentleman who mastered an art" from the craftsman who made much of manual labor. The emphasis of this intellectual factor in the creation had a considerable influence on a theme and the style of the academic picture.

Until the end of the 17th century, I had a debate among members over the predominance of the posture for the art after a royal picture, sculpture academy was reorganized by Louis XIV who schemed the control of every artwork of France in 1661. To be concrete this "war of the style" which of P Teru Paul Rubens and Nicolas Poussin from this did make a model of it? I put weight on the line (disegno) which appealed to intelligence and did the プッサン group (poussinistes) and insisted each when the Rubens group (rubenistes) should put weight in the color (colore) to accuse at feelings.

This debate recurred between Romanticism symbolized by a neoclassicism campaign and a work of Eugene Delacroix symbolized by the work of the Dominick angle early in the 19th century. Furthermore, it observed nature to learn a painting and should learn or had the debate whether I saw the picture of the past great master, and I should learn.

I made a model of a French academy, and an academy in imitation of the teaching and style appeared all over Europe. Royal Academy of arts were so in England. The fashion of the academy made the study of the picture of woman painters difficult. This is because many academies barred a woman until the late 19th century (e.g., as for the entrance to school of the girl student to Royal Academy until 18,691 years). Until the 20th century, there was concern whether "the life class" (Life class) using the nude model was suitable for a girl student to the copy.

Development of the academic style

Since a プッサン group, Rubens group debate, many painters worked between these two styles. However, at the time of debate of the 19th century, a trial to say to integrate Romanticism with two styles that is neoclassicism was done. In the inside where commentators nominated the name for as the painter who accomplished it, there are Theo Dole シャセリオー, ant シェフェール, Francesco eye Etsu, Alexander = Gabriel do perception, Thomas クチュール and others [the source required]. Academic painter of the latter period, William Adolf ブグロー commented on the secret that was a good painter with "seeing a color and a line as the same thing" [the source required]. Thomas クチュール recommended a thought same as it in the book which I wrote about art technique and insisted in this way. It is nonsense that this picture says that the line where a color is better is better. This is because a line shows so that a color looks splendid, and the reverse is also so. The color is really a method to talk about "color value" (value) of the form.

For progress of this time, there was a style to show "the times" described in a painting one more that is "historicism". It is a work of the Jean Auguste end Rick lace affected by Jamet Tissot (James Tissot) to express it well. Furthermore, there was the development of the Neo-Grec (new Greece) style, too. The historicism pointed to the faith in conjunction with the academic picture which combination should harmonize the traditional new direction of the different past picture with and the practice.

William Adolf ブグロー "day" (1881)

The world of art has begun to pay attention to "the allegory" in the picture again. When a theme, feelings, a concept might be expressed in that although I restrained means to produce psychological effect, it insisted on both theories to preach the importance of the line and color that a painter used the allegory. Painters tried such a theoretical unification in actual work and emphasized that I paid special attention to an art work as allegorical metaphor-like means. If the expression of a picture, the sculpture reminded of "an idea" of Plato, behind normal expression, I thought that something abstract, the everlasting truth had a glimpse and should get it. John Keats "the beauty truly truth it is that purpose to have said the beauty". When "an idea" (idée) should be a complete idea, the picture was expected. It is famous to have said that I do not write "a certain war" (a war), and ブグロー wants to write "war" (War). An allegorical title such as "sight" "taste" was touched to most of pictures which academic painters drew at "dusk" at "the daybreak" and personified it to the person of the alone naked body and constituted it by a method to clarify the essence of the idea.

This tendency went to the idealism opposite to the realism, and the created person image became abstract more briefly (in other words, I ideate). This made form to show naturally universality and assumed that I put it below the whole constitution, the theme of the work requirements.

The history and the myth were considered to be the rich base for dialectics, an allegory of a drama or the concept, and it was thought that it was the most solid form of the picture to use the theme adopted by them. "The hierarchy (Hierarchy of genres) of the genre" which began in the 17th century put "the historical picture" of the classic religious mythical literal allegorical theme in the top, and a genre picture, a portrait, a still-life picture, a landscape followed the bottom. The historical painting was known as "grande genre". I coupled it with historicism in the decoration in order that Hans マカルト often drew historical painting bigger than size of the original and was proud of overwhelming predominance by Vienna culture in the 19th century. The painter symbolizing a French historical picture is pole ドラローシュ.

Such tendency was affected by the theory of philosopher Hegel to be the dialectics of the concept that contradicted it that all finally solved the history in "合" (synthesis).

Over the end of 19th century, the academic picture fully spread among the European polite society. An exhibition was held frequently, but the thing most famous in that was salon ドートンヌ of the start for salon (salon de Paris) and 1,903 years. Such salon was the sensational event that a large number of audiences flocked regardless of a domestic foreign territory. There was the pulling in customers of 500,000 people by 50,000 people, 2-month holding only all day long on Sunday, too. A large number of pictures were hung lengthwise now from by a method that is a ceiling called "a salon style" (Salon style) to the bottom of the eye-level and were displayed. It was the proof that painters were recognized to hang over the salon, and a value went up the work among collectors. ブグロー, Alexander Cabanel, Jean = Leon Jerome were superb people in the world of art.

The picture for the low rococo era of the evaluation revived till then, and, at time of the academic picture prosperity, a theme such as amor and the psyche described in there called popularity again. In addition, the academic picture admired Raphael than Michelangelo from the idea of the work.

The academic picture made a model of the country except the West particularly the French Revolution as well as Europe and the United States of America and caused a revolution and opened the influence in the Latin America countries which imitated a French culture. An academic painter of Latin America needs Mexican Ann Hel サラガ [1].

Class of the academy

Person students of エコール to sketch (I photograph it late in the 1800s)

Young painters did nothing but severe training day in and day out for several years. In France, I passed an examination, and entrance to school was permitted attached school エコール デ ボザール of the academy only students who got the letter of recommendation from a well-known art professor. Nude sketch and 彩画 called "académies" were the basics of the academic picture, and the acquisition method of the technique was determined definitely. Students copied the printed matter of the classic sculpture and were made to be familiar with shadow of an outline, the light first. It was thought that the copying was important to academic education. The reason why I copy the work of the past artist is that I take in the art technique. Students had to submit a sketch for an evaluation to advance to the next step. The sketch of the gypsum model of the famous classic sculpture was waiting when it was recognized. It was permitted that only the person who wore the technique entered the classroom which sketched the model who posed. 彩画 using the paint was not told until it became the interesting thing in エコール デ ボザール in 1863. Students had to show ability by a sketch to do 彩画 using a writing brush. The sketch was regarded as basics of 彩画 of the academic picture. Only the person that it was recognized entered the atelier of the academist as a pupil and was able to learn 彩画. Through all courses, competition was opened in time set with a given theme, and the growth of students was measured.

The thing which was the most famous for the art competition for students was Rome prize. ローマ賞の優勝者はローマにあるアカデミー・フランセーズのヴィラ・メディチ校（現ローマ・フランス・アカデミー Académie de France à Rome）で最長5年間学ための奨学金を得られた。 コンペ参加の条件は、フランス国籍を持つ男性で独身かつ30歳以下だった。 さらにエコールの入学資格を満たし、有名な美術教師の指示も必要だった。 競争は厳しく、ファイナルまで幾つもの段階があった。 10人のコンペ参加者が72日間、アトリエに隔離され、最終審査の対象となる歴史画を描いた。 優勝者はプロとしてのキャリアを約束された。

前述した通り、サロンでの展示も画家として認められた証だった。そしてプロの画家たちの最終目標はアカデミー・フランセーズ会員に選ばれることだった。画家たちはサロンに絵を展示する委員に、自分の絵を最善の「線上」つまり目の高さで展示して欲しいと頼んだ。展覧会が始まって、もし絵が「空」つまり天井近くの高いところに展示されていたら、画家たちは不平を訴えた。

批判と遺産

アカデミック絵画への最初の批判は、ギュスターヴ・クールベら写実主義の画家たちから、その観念性に対して浴びせられた。それらは観念的なクリシェと神話・伝説のモチーフに基づく一方、現代社会との関係性がまったく無視されているというのである。写実主義によるもうひとつの批判は、彩画の「筆使いをわざと消した表面のなめらかさ」（Licked finish参照）だった。オブジェはリアルな質感を持たず、なめらかにつるつると、理想化されて描かれていたのである。写実主義画家テオデュール・リボー（Théodule Ribot）はそれに対抗して、ラフで未完成の質感を持った作品を試作した。

オノレ・ドーミエ画『今年もヴィーナス……いつもヴィーナス』（『Le Charivati』No.2、1864年）

スタイル的には、目で見たものをその場で描く、En plein air（屋外）での絵画を主張していた印象派たちが、アカデミック絵画の垢抜けして理想化（概念化）されたスタイルを批判した。アカデミック画家たちは最初にデッサンし、それから油絵具でスケッチするのだが、その高い完成度が印象派には嘘に見えたのだった。油絵具でスケッチした後、アカデミック画家たちは、イメージを理想化し細かいディテールを描き足すために「fini」（入念な仕上げ）を施す。遠近法は平面上に幾何学的に構築され、実際に見たものではなく、印象派は機械的な技法への傾倒を否定した。

写実主義も印象派も、静物画や風景画を下位に置くジャンルのヒエラルキーを否定した。注意しておかなければならないのは、写実主義や印象派などアカデミスムに抵抗した初期アヴァンギャルドの画家たちは、元々はアカデミック画家のアトリエにいたことである。クロード・モネ、ギュスターヴ・クールベ、エドゥアール・マネはアカデミック画家たちの弟子だった。より後期の前衛画家に位置するゴッホ、ロートレックらもフェルナン・コルモンの弟子として基礎的な技術・知識を習得しており、さらにはアンリ・マティスまでそうした教育を受けている。

近代美術（Modern art）とそのアヴァンギャルドが力をつけ、アカデミック絵画はさらに批判され、「感傷的」「クリシェ」「保守的」「非侵襲性」「ブルジョワ的」「趣味が良くない」と見なされた。フランスでは、アカデミック絵画のスタイルは、ジャック＝ルイ・ダヴィッドの絵の中の兵士が消防士（ポンピエ）のようなヘルメットをかぶっていることから「アール・ポンピエ」と、またその絵は仕掛けとトリックを通して偽りの感情を生み出したとされ、「grande machines」と呼ばれることもある。アカデミック絵画に対するこうした誹謗は、美術評論家クレメント・グリーンバーグがすべてのアカデミック絵画は「キッチュ」であると本に書いたことでピークに達した。アカデミック絵画への言及は美術史や参考書から徐々に姿を消していった。

しかしこうした前衛絵画の黄金期が過ぎ去り始めた1950年・60年代以降、かつて前衛画家やその先駆者達が批判したアカデミー教育と同じ「権威主義」と化した前衛絵画運動への批判が展開され始めた。当時の美術史教育ではルネサンス以降に権威に縋るようになったアカデミック系の芸術家が全く違う経緯から発展した印象派に打ち倒され、そしてこれを継承した前衛絵画が今日の絵画芸術を担っているという「前衛絵画史観」が一般的となっていた。アカデミズム美術の再評価を進めた美術史家アルバート・ボイムは自身が受けた大学院教育について、「スライドショーでセザンヌのパレードが展開される間、まるで息抜きがてら道化芝居を見せるようにジェロームらアカデミック美術の絵画が一枚だけ表示された」と回想している。

ボイムらによって美術史上で「取るに足らない存在」という扱いを受けていた最末期の新古典主義派の画家達も再評価される流れとなった。また並行する形で一般社会でも写実主義や正確なデッサンなどの古典的な価値観が求められる傾向にあり、アカデミック絵画の再評価にはずみをつけている。

主要な作家

フランス

イギリス

イタリア

オーストリア

オランダ

スイス

スペイン

チェコ

ドイツ

ハンガリー

ベルギー

ポーランド

カナダ

ウルグアイ

ブラジル

メキシコ

  • アンヘル・サラガ

インド

脚注

  1. ^ Angel Zárraga at Artnet

参考文献

  • Art and the Academy in the Nineteenth Century. (2000). Denis, Rafael Cordoso & Trodd, Colin (Eds). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2795-3
  • L'Art-Pompier. (1998). Lécharny, Louis-Marie, Que sais-je?, Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-049341-6
  • L'Art pompier: immagini, significati, presenze dell'altro Ottocento francese (1860-1890). (1997). Luderin, Pierpaolo, Pocket library of studies in art, Olschki. ISBN 88-222-4559-8
  • 　「特集　美術アカデミー」『西洋美術研究』2（1999年） 三元社
  • 　『アカデミーとフランス近代絵画』アルバート・ボイム（2005年） 三元社

外部リンク


「https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=アカデミック美術&oldid=56850583」から取得

This article is taken from the Japanese Wikipedia Academic art

This article is distributed by cc-by-sa or GFDL license in accordance with the provisions of Wikipedia.

Wikipedia and Tranpedia does not guarantee the accuracy of this document. See our disclaimer for more information.

In addition, Tranpedia is simply not responsible for any show is only by translating the writings of foreign licenses that are compatible with CC-BY-SA license information.

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