I act as a professor during World War II in Louisville University and participate in Manhattan Project in 1945. I perform programming to solve the equation that the physicists of the plan showed using an early electronic digital computer. It was a program to check whether an atom bomb did not burn the atmosphere exhaustively by a calculation [2]. As a result, I understood that we did not have to worry such, and the United States dropped two atom bombs on Japan after having tested it in New Mexico.
It was the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) founder and acted as the first chairperson. In a book about the numerical analysis of 1962, there is the word that "the purpose of the computing is not a number and is insight".
Hamming, Richard W; Hamming, Richard Wesley (1997). The Art of Doing Science and Engineering: Learning to Learn. Gordon and Breach. ISBN 90-5699-501-4. - A part of the contents is related to You and Your Research[11].
Movie
In movie Logic By Machine of 1965, I discuss the humming about the use and the possibility of the computer [12].
In addition, Tranpedia is simply not responsible for any show is only by translating the writings of foreign licenses that are compatible with CC-BY-SA license information.
Saying, "and did basic contribution to artificial intelligence stochastically by developing the algorithm of the causal reasoning"; ACMTuring Prize in 2011 receiving a prize [1] [2].
The son Daniel pearl (English version) of the pearl was a journalist, but was kidnapped in Pakistan by a person done with al Qaeda and the person concerned of the international Islam front in 2002, and was killed by being in Americans and a Jew [3]; [4].
Table of contents
Career
In 1936, I am born in Tel Aviv. In 1960, I obtained a bachelor's degree of the electrical engineering in an Israeli college of engineering. I moved to the United States after graduation and acquired physical master's degree in Rutgers University and obtained a doctorate of the electrical engineering in Brooklyn polytechnic institute (English version) in 1965. I study storage devices using the superconduction afterwards at a research institute of RCA. Furthermore, I studied the highest storage device in Electronic Memories, Inc. It is comp-sci and a statistical professor for the teaching profession there now in engineering of the UCLA and a technology section in 2012, and, in 1970, the director of the cognitive system research institute acts, too. I got 3 children between wife Ruth (Ruth). As of 2011, I act as an international question committee of NGO Monitor [5].
Murder case of the son Daniel pearl
The Daniel pearl (English version) of the son was the journalist who worked in The Wall Street Journal. In 2002, he was kidnapped in Pakistan and was killed. Therefore Jewish race Deer and a family and a friend found Daniel Pearl Foundation [6]. It is Daniel Pearl and the Normalization of Evil: of Jewish race Deer to day, The Wall Street Journal which became the seventh anniversary of the death of Daniel An article titled When will our luminaries stop making excuses for terror? was placed [7].
In addition, Tranpedia is simply not responsible for any show is only by translating the writings of foreign licenses that are compatible with CC-BY-SA license information.
"bitcoin" commentary animation (cf. animation of [3] that, in the case of reading, I am provided with a free license with a smartphone)
Table of contents
Summary
As for the bit coin, use was started based on an article [10] contributed by the person who gave Tetsushi Nakamoto () [8] [9] in 2009 [11].
The bit coin system is run by the network of the peer toe peer type, and the transaction (the proprietary rights move of the bit coin.business) is performed without an intermediary directly between users. This transaction is inspected by a node participating in the network and is recorded to the public dispersion ledger called the block chain. Bit coin (BTC) is used in the transaction as a currency unit. Because this system is run without employing a central storage server and a single manager, I classify the United States Department of the Treasury in the category called the imagination currency that a bit coin was dispersed. The bit coin is said to be the first code currency, but a precedent system such as DigiCash and Ripple exists, and what explain it as the first dispersed digital currency is more correct. The bit coin has the biggest aggregate market value in this kind of system.
The bit coin is published in the form of the reward for the transaction processing work newly, and the transaction is inspected because users offer computing power and is recorded to an exhibition ledger. Inspection, the record work of this transaction is called mining (digging) and receives a minor (person of digging) transaction fee and a new publication bit coin for a consideration. I can change the bit coin for other currencies and products, services while I am obtained by mining. When I transmit a bit coin, the user can pay the transaction fee of any sum for minor.
The number of companies which received a bit coin for value of a product and the service exceeded 100,000 in February, 2015. Credit card companies usually impose 2-3% of fees, but the company pays a transaction fee of less than 2% in the bit coin in many cases more than 0%. Though the number of companies receiving a bit coin increased to 4 times in 2014, the code currencies do not spread very much in the retail industry. When it cannot be said that I am protected by a right and the charge back where a bit coin user demands repayment from, European bank Board of Control (EBA) and the origin of other reporting warn it. The use of the bit coin by the criminal attracts attention of the financial regulation authorities, a legislative body, law enforcement agency, the media. Although I recognize a bit coin to be able to provide a legal financial service, as for the administration official of countries including the United States, criminal activity is carried out mainly on a darkness net market and theft.
The bit coin enables the settlement (and micropayment) with the extremely low cost by the wait for an average of around ten minutes without a publisher having a power organization and special authority. The movement of the money from a node to a different node is performed by electronic signed business, and I am broadcasted by all nodes in the peer toe peer type network. A proof of work system (English version) is used for detection of the early currency circulation and the double payment.
The bit coin is available by digging or the exchange with a product, service, other currencies receiving contribution again.
The trust of the bit coin without a central rule organization is formed of the whole network participant mutually.
The central organization working hard to prevent a value fall cannot control value against the intention of the user while I am at risk of not existing. [12]
Use by the business in the financial institution is forbidden in China [13] and warns it when the European bank Board of Control is lacking in user protection [14].
The theft of the bit coin is possible and can reduce such risk by [15], the preventive measures in offline against things with the example [16].
Now [when?] Although the commercial traffic that it is like overall の is smaller than a speculation purpose to drive a price fluctuation, it is really used for the payment of a product and the service [17].
An expense is held down in comparison with 2-3% of fees of the general credit card [18].
The bit coin can realize the settlement cost that is cheaper than the fee of the credit card and is not influenced by the festival day on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. In addition, both seller buyers is not necessary for the input of the information that becomes the problem if it leaks outside including personal information and the card number together either. Therefore I strengthen footing as settlement means of the e-commerce steadily. [19]
Of the meaning by the big things and small things of the initial is different, and, in capital letter notation (Bitcoin), in small letter (bitcoin), a protocol refers to currency in itself in a business network [26].
Currency unit
The currency unit of bit coin is "bitcoin" (). As of 2014 in the sign representing the bit coin BTC, XBT, But, there is it [27]: 2. For subsidiary units, "satoshi" () exists "µBTC" () "mBTC" (). By the smallest unit of the bit coin which Satoshi was added to in commemoration of Satoshi Nakamoto who was the author of the bit coin equal to a one-100,000,000th bit coin [28]. The microbit coin may be called merely bit with a one-1,000,000th bit coin.
Saying that, on October 7, 2014, the bit coin foundation clarifies a plan to propose the ISO 4217 currency cord for the bit coin to [29], and BTC or XBT is the main candidate [30].
In 2015 the sign of the bit coinWas admitted that added "to Unicode () (U+20BF) [31]; [32].
Structure
There is not the central organization such as the central bank to a bit coin, and all the publication and the business of the currency are performed on a peer-to-peer network.
All business histories of the bit coin are recorded in the account book called the block chain [explanatory note 1]. The block chain is recorded in the node on the network distributedly. Anyone can inspect consistency of the business if I see this because all past business is recorded.
Instead of not existing, in the case of payment, as for the electronic record and history between the buying and selling, the buyer requires formal transaction log, the update of the block chain [33].
A possession history is listed in a list of all transaction, and it is inspected by a distributed network.
Network participants are known as a person of digging and get transaction fees and coining profit [34].
Participants deliver the bit coin using the wallet (wallet) software in a PC, a mobile terminal or the web application.
A confirmation procedure and mining of the business
The remitter broadcasts the transactional details [explanatory note 2] such as an amount of money or the recipient in a node called minor [explanatory note 3] (person of digging) constituting a network. I compile the transactional details that I received in the form called the block and add the minor to the end of the block chain. But it is necessary to solve a big problem of the computational complexity to record new blocking. Minor solve the problem competitively, and only successful minor can get a reward of the amount of uniformity in adding a block first. When the irregular compatibility such as the double payment records blocking to a block chain, they are checked by other nodes.
As for the problem, a degree of difficulty is coordinated to come loose for approximately ten minutes, and consistency of the business is confirmed by minor, and the remitter must wait for time at the same level until it is recorded to a block chain.
All circulating bit coin currencies are supplied to the market in the form of the reward to minor in this way.
Prevention of the injustice by the decision by majority
The conception diagram of the block chain. The best chain (black) is a chain having the longest business history. In addition, the lone chain (purple) exists, too.
The block chain can think that the blocking that a business history was recorded was connected like one chain, but may diverge in some cases. For example, when the case that a certain malice assailant tampered with a past block and plural minor add a block at the same time.
The bit coin solves such a problem in a principle "to trust the longest block chain". One "to be long" means that the computational complexity that I suffered from though I constitute the chain is big not a meaning that there is much number of the blocks simply. In other words, it is the decision by majority that assumed computational complexity a unit.
A chain derived from there must become longer than other chains so that the history is trusted even if an assailant renews a past business history. However, big computational complexity is necessary to constitute a chain. Because minor of the good will continue always adding blocks to the longest chain, the assailant casts calculation resources more than the total computing power and must stretch out the chain which you tampered with. In other words, a single assailant must maintain computing power of the majority of the whole network. If the number of nodes to participate in a bit coin is big enough, it is difficult to secure such a calculation resources. The bit coin secures solidity based on this way of thinking (proof of work(English version)).
When plural minor adds an individual block each, and a chain diverges, each minor on the network works on mining with a choice of a chain of either soon. The other chain is abandoned when a newer block was added to a chain of either.
Address and wallet
It is added correspondence to an address [explanatory note 4], and the bit coin is stored away. The address is generated for a public key encryption pair, and supporting private key is necessary when I remit from the address.
The wallet [explanatory note 5] is a set of the addresses. Some kinds are to the wallet of the bit coin.
Software wallet
It is a wallet of the software working on the operating system such as Windows (), MacOS (), iOS (), Android ().
It is a wallet of the Web Service to manage the wallet on behalf of a user. Because it is available, the convenience is high, but the security side will entrust the service offer organization regardless of the kind of the terminal.
One function in - Bitcoin-Qt was implemented in 2009, and a large quantity of bit coins were cast. This is because there was the software which can carry out business and the digging of the bit coin only in Bitcoin-Qt. Because if software specialized in digging was more efficient, this function became clear; afterwards [when?] I was deleted. Thereafter, [how long?] The open-source software of, bit coin is maintained by the group of core developer and other cooperators and is expanded.
An article is contributed by a person giving - Tetsushi Nakamoto [8] [9] in May, 2009 [10].
The value of the -1 bit coin rose suddenly from approximately 0.3 U.S. dollars to 32 U.S. dollars in 2011 and returned to 2 U.S. dollars.
In the case of the financial crisis of late 2012 and 2013 in Cyprus, the price of bit coin began to soar and reached the peak of 266 U.S. dollars on 10th in April, 2013 and fell to approximately 50 U.S. dollars afterwards.
The divergence of the block chain happened by - technical defect in March, 2013. Two bit coin networks which diverged are managed at the same time, and each will have an inherent business history for 6 hours. Is intense; sell, and, in the face of an offensive, a central developer passes [whom?] I called for a temporary stop of the は business. I returned to a normal state by most of the networks being downgraded from defective version 0.8 by bit coin software of version 0.7 [when?] .
The assets which belonged to マウントゴックス of the - bit coin exchange in May, 2013 were confiscated by American Department of Homeland Security, and a website of Silk Road () which performed medicine buying and selling was closed by FBI [the source required].
To the user of the website security service company's in October, 2013 as for Baidu of - China of IT major with the bit coin was able to settle an account. The ATM of the bit coin was introduced for the first time in British Columbia Vancouver, Canada in October, 2013.
The brick and mortar company indicating - intention to adopt stays in 1,000 companies in November, 2013 [39] and is in contrast to 20,000 online companies [40]. The BTC China () of the bit coin exchange based in China overtook マウントゴックス based in Japan and Bitstamp based in Europe and became the world's largest bit coin exchange in volume of business.
It was said that the virtual currency was a legal financial service in a public hearing of Japan-U.S. country Upper House Committee on November 19, 2013, and the value of the bit coin of マウントゴックス reached the peak of 900 U.S. dollars. On the same day, a certain bit coin was bought and sold for 6,780 yuan (1,100 U.S. dollars) in China.
Approximately 12 million - bit coins existed in November, 2013, and the aggregate market value reached by at least 7,200 million U.S. dollars.
The aggregate market value of - bit coin exceeded 10 billion U.S. dollars for the first time on November 23, 2013.
- People's Bank of China prohibited that a Chinese financial institution used a bit coin on December 5, 2013 [the source required]. After announcement, the value of the bit coin declined, and Baidu canceled the acceptance of the bit coin about the specific service [the source required]. It became illegal in China after 2009 to purchase a product of the real world for a virtual currency. [The source required]
Two men were arrested on the charge of the money laundering using - bit coin in January, 2014 [the source required]. It is Charlie Shrem and Robert Faiella acting as the vice-chairperson of director and bit coin foundation of the BitInstant exchange. Shrem lets Faiella purchase a large quantity of bit coins, and the doubt that let you value an illegal drag using it in a black market site is held [by whom?] .
One マウントゴックス of the - largest bit coin exchange stopped the drawer in bit coin by the reason of a technical problem about the weakness called "transaction malleability" temporarily in February, 2014 [the source required]. The price of bit coin declined from 800 U.S. dollars of February 1 to 400 U.S. dollars one week later while the company pushed forward the correction of the system.
The website of - マウントゴックス was separated on February 24, 2014 by the network, and all business was stopped. A report that a bit coin of the 350 million U.S. dollars equivalency in total encountered damage of the theft by the defect of the settlement program for several years was an event in the middle carried out [the source required].
マウントゴックス of the - major exchange stopped all business on February 26, 2014 [41].
マウントゴックス [explanatory note 6] [explanatory note 7] of the - major exchange stopped all business on the early morning of February 26, 2014 [41], and it was said, "I decided to stop all business temporarily to protect a site and the customer of the exchange" [42]. According to The Wall Street Journal, the New York south United States Attorney station started the investigation on 25th and sent a summons to マウントゴックス and gave it an order for the maintenance of documents [43]. On 28th, the company applied to the Tokyo District Court for an application of Civil Rehabilitation Law and was accepted [44]. Amount of damage assumes the company an 850,000 bits coin (11,400 million yen equivalency) and 2800000000 yen in cash. ([45] that 48 billion yen equivalency is right.) That can originally tamper with a customer in published business ID, and, according to the researcher Kusu Masanori honorary member of the glow com, can require business again and again even if refer to original ID because there is not business ID [46]; (say transaction ミュータビリティー, and have been pointed out in 2011, but leave マウントゴックス, and it is said that remitted again again and again) [the source required]. That the mass unjust withdrawals are possible if I can steal the password of "the wallet" managing the private key according to representative Takayuki Sugiura of "the net agent" [46]. The details refer to "マウントゴックス"
Online trip giant Expedia in Japan and the U.S. starts use of bit coin by a hotel reservation on June 13, 2014. [47]
- Dell starts acceptance of the payment with the bit coin by the sale of our product through the official homepage on July 18, 2014. [48]
Rakuten supermarket logistics of - United States starts the handling of the bit coin settlement in August, 2014. [49]
At end of September, 2014 - investment more than 33 billion yen. [50]
The aggregate market value of at December 18, 2015 - bit coin approximately 840 billion yen [51].
- major exchange Coinbase () opens bit coin exchange "Coinbase Exchange" () in response to the authorization of American 24 states on January 26, 2015. [52]
The service of the mainstream including the non profit organization such as the electronic frontier foundation has begun to receive a bit coin as a method of the settlement [when?] .
The price of bit coin fluctuated intensely from the beginning of circulation start and experienced a remarkable rise and the fall of various patterns [when?] .
Since, in the American bit coin exchange, currency service business was regulated [how long?] It is required to report the activity that, money laundering is doubted.
^Matonis, Jon (2013年1月22日). "Bitcoin Casinos Release 2012 Earnings". Forbes (ニューヨーク). オリジナルの2013年2月16日時点によるアーカイブ。. http://archive.is/JHWHM. "Responsible for more than 50% of daily network volume on the Bitcoin blockchain, SatoshiDice reported first year earnings from wagering at an impressive ฿33,310."
^Bustillos, Maria (4/2/13). "The Bitcoin Boom". The New Yorker. Conde Naste. 2013年12月22日閲覧。 ""...there seems to be a consensus forming around Bitcoin, capitalized, for the system, the software, and the network it runs on, and bitcoin, lowercase, for the currency itself""
^Hough, Jack (2011年6月10日). "The Bitcoin Triples Again". The Wall Street Journal. 2013年4月12日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年3月23日閲覧。 "To recap, it's is a purely online currency with no intrinsic value; its worth is based solely on the willingness of holders and merchants to accept it in trade."
For attention by law enforcement and regulatory bodies, see Lavin, Tim (2013年8月8日). "The SEC Shows Why Bitcoin Is Doomed". bloomberg.com. Bloomberg LP. 2013年10月20日閲覧。
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The United States of America
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